Zingiber officinale

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References

al-Yahya MA, Rafatullah S, Mossa JS, Ageel AM, Parmar NS, Tariq M. Gastroprotective activity of ginger in albino rats. Am J Chinese Med 1989;17(1-2):51-56.
Abstract: The cytoprotective and gastric anti-ulcer studies of ginger have been carried out in albino rats. Cytodestruction was produced by 80% ethanol, 0.6M HC1, 0.2M NaOH and 25% NaCl. Whereas gastric ulcers were produced by ulcerogenic agents including indomethacin, aspirin and reserpine, beside hypothermic restraint stress and by pylorus ligated Shay rat technique. The results of this study demonstrate that the extract in the dose of 500 mg/kg orally exert highly significant cytoprotection against 80% ethanol, 0.6M HC1, 0.2M NaOH and 25% NaCl induced gastric lesions. The extract also prevented the occurrence of gastric ulcers induced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and hypothermic restraint stress. These observations suggest cytoprotective and anti-ulcerogenic effect of the ginger.

Arfeen Z, Owen H, Plummer JL, Ilsley AH, Sorby-Adams RA, Doecke CJ. A double-blind randomized controlled trial of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1995 Aug;23(4):449-452.
Abstract: The efficacy of ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting was studied in a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial in 108 ASA 1 or 2 patients undergoing gynaecological laparoscopic surgery under general anaesthesia. Patients received oral placebo, ginger BP 0.5g or ginger BP 1.0g, all with oral diazepam premedication, one hour prior to surgery. Patients were assessed at three hours postoperatively. The incidence of nausea and vomiting increased slightly but nonsignificantly with increasing dose of ginger. The incidence of moderate or severe nausea was 22, 33 and 36%, while the incidence of vomiting was 17, 14 and 31% in groups receiving 0, 0.5 and 1.0g ginger, respectively (odds ratio per 0.5g ginger 1.39 for nausea and 1.55 for vomiting). These results were essentially unchanged when adjustment was made for concomitant risk factors. We conclude that ginger BP in doses of 0.5 or 1.0 gram is ineffective in reducing the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting.

Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, et al, eds. The Complete Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. Boston, MA: Integrative Medicine Communications, 1998, 135-136.

Bone ME, Wilkinson DJ, Young JR. et al. Ginger root - a new antiemetic: The effect of ginger root on postoperative nausea and vomiting after major gynaecological surgery. Anaesthesia 1990 Aug;45(8):669-671.
Abstract: The effectiveness of ginger (Zingiber officinale) as an antiemetic agent was compared with placebo and metoclopramide in 60 women who had major gynaecological surgery in a double-blind, randomised study. There were statistically significantly fewer recorded incidences of nausea in the group that received ginger root compared with placebo (p less than 0.05). The number of incidences of nausea in the groups that received either ginger root or metoclopramide were similar. The administration of antiemetic after operation was significantly greater in the placebo group compared to the other two groups (p less than 0.05).

Bordia A, Verma SK, Srivastava KC. Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L) on blood lipids, blood sugar, and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostagland Leukotrienes Essential Fatty Acids 1997 May;56(5):379-384.
Abstract: In a placebo-controlled study the effect of ginger and fenugreek was examined on blood lipids, blood sugar, platelet aggregation, fibrinogen and fibrinolytic activity. The subjects included in this study were healthy individuals, patients with coronary artery disease (CAD), and patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) who either had CAD or were without CAD. In patients with CAD powdered ginger administered in a dose of 4 g daily for 3 months did not affect ADP- and epinephrine-induced platelet aggregation. Also, no change in the fibrinolytic activity and fibrinogen level was observed. However, a single dose of 10 g powdered ginger administered to CAD patients produced a significant reduction in platelet aggregation induced by the two agonists. Ginger did not affect the blood lipids and blood sugar. Fenugreek given in a dose of 2.5 g twice daily for 3 months to healthy individuals did not affect the blood lipids and blood sugar (fasting and post prandial). However, administered in the same daily dose for the same duration to CAD patients also with NIDDM, fenugreek decreased significantly the blood lipids (total cholesterol and triglycerides) without affecting the HDL-c. When administered in the same daily dose to NIDDM (non-CAD) patients (mild cases), fenugreek reduced significantly the blood sugar (fasting and post prandial). In severe NIDDM cases, blood sugar (both fasting and post prandial) was only slightly reduced. The changes were not significant. Fenugreek administration did not affect platelet aggregation, fibrinolytic activity and fibrinogen.

Bradley PR, ed. British Herbal Compendium, vol 1. Bournemouth, Dorset, UK: British Herbal Medicine Association, 1992, 112-114.

Brinker F. The Toxicology of Botanical Medicines. Revised second ed. Sandy, Oregon: Eclectic Medical Publications, 1996.

DeSmet PAGM, et al. (eds) Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs 3. NY Springer Verlag, 1997.

Ellingwood, F. 1898. American Materia Medica, Therapeutics, and Pharmacognosy. Portland, OR: Eclectic Medical Publications.

Farnsworth NR, Bingel AS, Cordell GA, Crane FA, Fong HHS. Potential Value of Plants as Sources of New Antifertility Agents I. J Pharm Sci 1975;64:535-98.

Felter HW, Scudder JK. The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Cincinnati, Ohio, 1922. Reprinted in 1985 by Eclectic Medical Publications, Portland, OR.

Grontved A, Brask T, Kambskard J, Hentzer E. Ginger root against seasickness. A controlled trial on the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 1988 Jan-Feb;105(1-2):45-49.
Abstract: In a double-blind randomized placebo trial, the effect of the powdered rhizome of ginger (Zingiber officinale) was tested on seasickness. Eighty naval cadets, unaccustomed to sailing in heavy seas reported during voyages on the high seas, symptoms of seasickness every hour for 4 consecutive hours after ingestion of 1 g of the drug or placebo. Ginger root reduced the tendency to vomiting and cold sweating significantly better than placebo did (p less than 0.05). With regard to vomiting, a modified Protection Index (PI) = 72% was calculated. Remarkably fewer symptoms of nausea and vertigo were reported after ginger root ingestion, but the difference was not statistically significant. For all symptom categories, PI = 38% was calculated.

Grontved A, Hentzer E. Vertigo-reducing effect of ginger root. A controlled clinical study. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 1986;48(5):282-286.
Abstract: The effect of powdered ginger root (Zingiber officinale) upon vertigo and nystagmus following caloric stimulation of the vestibular system was studied in 8 healthy volunteers in a double-blind crossover placebo trial. The results reported are based upon 48 vertigo scores and 48 electronystagmograms. Ginger root reduced the induced vertigo significantly better than did placebo. There was no statistically significant action upon the duration or the maximum slow phase velocity of nystagmus.

Holtmann S, Clarke AH, Scherer H, Hohn M. The anti-motion sickness mechanism of ginger. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) 1989 Sep-Oct;108(3-4):168-174.
Abstract: A controlled, double-blind study was carried out to determine whether nystagmus response to optokinetic or vestibular stimuli might be altered by some agent contained in powdered ginger root (Zingiber officinale). For comparative purposes, the test subjects were examined after medication with ginger root, placebo and with dimenhydrinate. Eye movements were recorded using standard ENG equipment and evaluation was performed by automatic nystagmus analysis. It could be demonstrated that the effect of ginger root did not differ from that found at baseline, or with placebo, i.e. it had no influence on the experimentally induced nystagmus. Dimenhydrinate, on the other hand, was found to cause a reduction in the nystagmus response to caloric, rotatory and optokinetic stimuli. From the present study it can be concluded that neither the vestibular nor the oculomotor system, both of which are of decisive importance in the occurrence of motion sickness, are influenced by ginger. A CNS mechanism, which is characteristic of the conventional anti-motion sickness drugs, can thus be excluded as regards ginger root. It is more likely that any reduction of motion-sickness symptoms derives from the influence of the ginger root agents on the gastric system.

Janssen PL, Meyboom S, van Staveren WA, de Vegt F, Katan MB. Consumption of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) does not affect ex vivo platelet thromboxane production in humans. Eur J Clin Nutr 1996 Nov;50(11):772-774.
Abstract: OBJECTIVES: Ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe) has been claimed to exert an anti-thrombotic effect in humans as ginger extracts inhibit cyclo-oxygenase activity of platelets in vitro. Effects of ginger consumption on ex vivo platelet function, however, are contradictory. We therefore investigated whether daily consumption of raw or cooked ginger decreases platelet cyclo-oxygenase activity as assessed by ex vivo maximally stimulated platelet thromboxane B2 production. DESIGN: We carried out a randomized placebo-controlled cross-over study of 3 x 2 weeks. SUBJECTS: Eighteen healthy volunteers aged 22 +/- 3 y (mean +/- s.d.) participated in the study; there were no dropouts. INTERVENTIONS: Subjects consumed 15 g of raw ginger root, 40 g of cooked stem ginger, or placebo daily for two weeks. We took fasted venous blood samples and measured thromboxane B2 production in maximally stimulated platelet-rich plasma at days 12 and 14 of each treatment period. RESULTS: Mean decrease in thromboxane production relative to placebo was 1 +/- 9% for ginger root, and -1 +/- 8% for stem ginger, with no effect of treatment order (P = 0.984). CONCLUSIONS: We cannot confirm the putative anti-thrombotic activity of ginger in humans.

Langner E, Greifenberg S, Gruenwald J. Ginger: History and use. Adv Ther 1998;15:25-44. (Review)

Lumb AB. Effect of dried Ginger on human platelet function. Thromb Hemostas 1994 Jan;71(1):110-111.
Abstract: Eight healthy male volunteers took part in a randomised double blind study of the effects of 2 g dried ginger or placebo capsules on platelet function. Bleeding time, platelet count, thromboelastography and whole blood platelet aggregometry were performed before, 3 h, and 24 h after the capsules. There were no differences between ginger and placebo in any of the variables measured. It is concluded that the effect of ginger on thromboxane synthetase activity is dose dependent, or only occurs with fresh ginger, and that upto 2 g of dried ginger is unlikely to cause platelet dysfunction when used therapeutically.

Lumb AB. Mechanism of antiemetic effect of ginger. Anaesthesia. 1993 Dec;48(12):1118.

McGuffin, Michael, ed. American Herbal Products Association’s Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton, FL: The CRC Press, 1997.

Meyer K, Schwartz J, Crater D, Keyes B. Zingiber officinale (ginger) used to prevent 8-Mop associated nausea. Dermatol Nurs 1995 Aug;7(4):242-244.
Abstract: Patients undergoing photopheresis are required to ingest the drug 8-MOP as part of their treatment. This drug causes nausea as a side effect. Ginger taken prior to 8-MOP may substantially reduce this side effect. This study compared patients' nausea when taking 8-MOP with and without ginger.

Pace JC. Oral ingestion of encapsulated ginger and reported self care actions for the relief of chemotherapy-associated nausea and vomiting. Dissertation Abstr Internat 1987;8:3297.

Phillips S, Ruggier R, Hutchinson SE. Zingiber officinale (ginger)-an antiemetic for day case surgery. Anaesthesia Aug;48(8):715-717.
Abstract: The effect of powdered ginger root was compared with metoclopramide and placebo. In a prospective, randomised, double-blind trial the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting was measured in 120 women presenting for elective laparoscopic gynaecological surgery on a day stay basis. The incidence of nausea and vomiting was similar in patients given metoclopramide and ginger (27% and 21%) and less than in those who received placebo (41%). The requirement for postoperative antiemetics was lower in those patients receiving ginger. The requirements for postoperative analgesia, recovery time and time until discharge were the same in all groups. There was no difference in the incidence of possible side effects such as sedation, abnormal movement, itch and visual disturbance between the three groups. Zingiber officinale is an effective and promising prophylactic antiemetic, which may be especially useful for day case surgery.

Sharma SS, Gupta YK. Reversal of cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying in rats by ginger (Zingiber officinale). J Ethnopharmacol 1998 Aug;62(1):49-55
Abstract: Cisplatin causes nausea, vomiting and inhibition of gastric emptying. We have demonstrated the antiemetic effect of the acetone and ethanolic extract of ginger (Zingiber officinale, Roscoe, Zingiberacae) against cisplatin-induced emesis in dogs. In the present study, the acetone and 50% ethanolic extract of ginger in the doses of 100, 200 and 500 mg/kg (p.o.) and ginger juice, in the doses of 2 and 4 ml/kg, were investigated against cisplatin effect on gastric emptying in rats. All three ginger preparations significantly reversed cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying. The ginger juice and acetone extract were more effective than the 50% ethanolic extract. The reversal produced by the ginger acetone extract was similar to that caused by the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron; however, ginger juice produced better reversal than ondansetron. Therefore, ginger, an antiemetic for cancer chemotherapy, may also be useful in improving the gastrointestinal side effects of cancer chemotherapy.

Suekawa M, Ishige A, Yuasa K, Sudo K, Aburada M, Hosoya E. Pharmacological studies on ginger. I. Pharmacological actions of pungent constitutents, (6)-gingerol and (6)-shogaol. J Pharmacobiodyn. 1984 Nov;7(11):836-848.
Abstract: General pharmacological studies were performed on (6)-gingerol and (6)-shogaol which are the pungent constituents of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Intravenous (i.v.) administration of (6)-gingerol (at 1.75-3.5 mg/kg) or (6)-shogaol (at 1.75-3.5 mg/kg) and oral administration of them (at 70-140 mg/kg) produced an inhibition of spontaneous motor activity, an antipyretic and analgesic effects, prolonged hexobarbital-induced sleeping time, and these effects of (6)-shogaol were mostly more intensive than that of (6)-gingerol. (6)-Shogaol showed an intense antitussive effect in comparison with dihydrocodeine phosphate. In the electro-encephalogram of cortex, the low amplitude fast wave pattern was observed for 5 min after i.v. administration of (6)-shogaol, and then changed to the drowsy pattern, which was restored after 60 min. In the gastro-intestinal system, (6)-shogaol intensively inhibited the traverse of charcoal meal through the intestine in contrast with (6)-gingerol after i.v. administration of 3.5 mg/kg, but (6)-shogaol facilitated such an intestinal function after oral administration of 35 mg/kg. Both (6)-shogaol and (6)-gingerol suppressed gastric contraction in situ, and the suppression by the former was more intensive than that by the latter. In the cardiovascular system, both (6)-shogaol and (6)-gingerol produced depressor response at lower doses on the blood pressure. At high doses, both drugs produced three phase pattern.

Verma SK, Singh J, Khamesra R, Bordia A. Effect of ginger on platelet aggregation in man. Indian J Med Res 1993 Oct;98:240-242.
Abstract: Dietary supplementation of 100 g butter in 20 healthy male volunteers for 7 days was found to enhance platelet aggregation to a significant extent (P < 0.001). Addition of 5 g of dry ginger in two divided doses with fatty meal (in 10 individuals) significantly (P < 0.001) inhibited the platelet aggregation induced by ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and epinephrine, while in the placebo control group (10 individuals), there was no significant alteration in platelet aggregation. Serum lipids, however, remained unchanged in both the groups.

Visalyaputra S, Petchpaisis N, Somcharoen K, Choavaratana R. The efficacy of ginger root in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting after outpatient gynaecological laparoscopy. Anaesthesia 1998 May;53(5):506-510.
Abstract: To determine the anti-emetic effect of ginger as compared to droperidol, 120 patients scheduled to have gynaecological diagnostic laparoscopy as day cases were randomly allocated into placebo, droperidol, ginger and ginger plus droperidol groups to receive either 2 g of ginger or 1.25 mg of droperidol or both. There were no significant differences in the incidences of postoperative nausea which were 32%, 20%, 22% and 33%, and vomiting which were 35%, 15%, 25% and 25% in the four groups, respectively. We conclude that ginger powder, in the dose of 2 g, droperidol 1.25 mg or both are ineffective in reducing the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting after day case gynaecological laparoscopy.

Wichtl M (ed.). Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1994.

Yamahara J, Miki K, Chisaka T, Sawada T, Fujimura H, Tomimatsu T, Nakano K, Nohara T. Cholagogic effect of ginger and its active constituents. J Ethnopharmacol. 1985 May;13(2):217-225.
Abstract: The effect of bile secretion in rats was examined in order to clarify the stomachic action of ginger and also to investigate its active constituents. The results showed that mainly the acetone extracts of ginger, which contain essential oils and pungent principles, caused an increase in the bile secretion. Further analyses for the active constituents of the acetone extracts through column chromatography indicated that [6]-gingerol and [10]-gingerol, which are the pungent principles, are mainly responsible for the cholagogic effect of ginger.

Yamahara J, Huang QR, Li YH, Xu L, Fujimura H. Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger and its active constituents. Chem Pharm Bull 1990 Feb;38(2):430-431.
Abstract: The effect of ginger root (Zingiberis Rhizoma) on gastrointestinal motility was examined based on its ability to enhance charcoal meal transport in mice. Oral administrations of the acetone extract of ginger (which contains volatile oils and bitter substances) at 75 mg/kg, [6]-shogaol at 2.5 mg/kg, or a [6]-, [8]- or [10]-gingerol at 5 mg/kg enhanced the transport of a charcoal meal. The effects of these substances were similar to or slightly weaker than those of metoclopramide and donperidone.

Yoshikawa M, Yamaguchi S, Kunimi K, Matsuda H, Okuno Y, Yamahara J, Murakami N. [Qualitative and quantitative analysis of bioactive principles in Zingiberis Rhizoma by means of high performance liquid chromatography and gas liquid chromatography. On the evaluation of Zingiberis Rhizoma and chemical change of constituents during Zingiberis Rhizoma processing]. Yakugaku Zasshi. 1993 Apr;113(4):307-315. [Article in Japanese]
Abstract: An anti-ulcer constituent, 6-gingesulfonic acid, and three monoacyldigalactosylglycerols, gingerglycolipids A, B, and C, were isolated from Zingiberis Rhizoma, the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe which was cultivated in Taiwan, together with (+)-angelicoidenol-2-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside. Based on chemical reactions and physicochemical evidence, the structures of 6-gingesulfonic acid, gingerglycolipids A, B, and C have been determined. In addition, the absolute stereostructure of (+)-angelicoidenol-2-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside was clarified on the basis of its synthesis from d-borneol. 6-Ginesulfonic acid showed weaker pungency and more potent anti-ulcer activity than 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol.